Research on Tai Chi
Arthritis
Kirsteins, A. E., Dietz, F., and Hwang, S. M.(1991).Evaluating
the safety and potential use of a weight-bearing exercise,
Tai-Chi Chuan, for rheumatoid arthritis patients. American
Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 70(3),
136-141.
Abstract: The safety of a traditional Chinese exercise,
Tai-Chi Chuan, on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients was
evaluated. RA patients, who received 1 h of Tai-Chi Chuan
instruction once (n = 20) and twice (n = 15) a week for
10 consecutive wk in two separate studies, showed no deterioration
in their clinical disease activities compared with the corresponding
controls (n = 11 and 9, respectively). Testing parameters
included joint tenderness, joint swelling, time to walk
50 feet, handgrip strength and a written functional assessment.
No significant exacerbation of joint symptoms using this
weight-bearing form of exercise was observed. Tai-Chi Chuan
exercise appears to be safe for RA patients and may serve
as an alternative for their exercise therapy and part of
their rehabilitation program. Weight-bearing exercises have
the potential advantages of stimulating bone growth and
strengthening connective tissue, but this effect needs to
be documented in long-term studies
Attention Deficit
Disorder
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T., & Thimas, E. (2001).
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: benefits from
Tai Chi. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies,
5, 120-123.
Abstract: Thirteen adolescents with Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) participated in Tai Chi classes
twice a week for 5 weeks. Teachers rated the children's
behaviour on the Conners Scale during the baseline period,
after the 5 week Tai Chi session period and 2 weeks later.
After the 10 Tai Chi sessions the adolescents displayed
less anxiety, improved conduct, less daydreaming behaviours,
less inappropriate emotions, and less hyperactivity. These
improved scores persisted over the 2-week follow up (no
Tai Chi period).
Balance
Van Deusen, J. and Harlowe, D. (1987).The efficacy of
the ROM Dance Program for adults with rheumatoid arthritis.
American Journal of Occupational Therapy 41(2), 90-95.
Abstract: This study examined the efficacy of an
exercise and relaxation program for adults with rheumatoid
arthritis. The program integrates principles of occupational
therapy and T'ai-Chi Ch'uan and was expected to be more
effective than traditional exercise and rest regimens because
of its expressive and pleasurable elements. There were significant
differences between 17 experimental and 16 control subjects
on two categories of dependent variables after the former
group's participation in the experimental program. These
dependent variables were range of motion measures and subject
self-reports of frequency, enjoyment, and benefits of home
exercise and rest routines. Pretest, posttest, and 4-month
follow-up data were analyzed. Program participants showed
significantly greater upper extremity range of motion 4
months after completing the program although the reported
frequency of exercise and rest was greater in the control
group. Postprogram reports of enjoyment were significantly
higher for experimental than for control subjects. If these
initial results are confirmed in further studies, the efficacy
of the use of purposeful activity for exercise and rest
will be supported. This study also supports the integration
of Eastern and Western frames of reference in the treatment
of patients with chronic illness
Tse, S. K. and Bailey, D. M. T'ai chi and postural control
in the well elderly. (1998). American Journal of Occupational
Therapy 46(4), 295-300.
Abstract: In this study, we investigated the potential
value of t'ai chi in promoting postural control of the well
elderly. T'ai chi, a traditional Chinese exercise, is a
series of individual dancelike movements linked together
in a continuous, smooth-flowing sequence. Performance on
five balance tests of 9 t'ai chi practitioners was compared
to that of 9 nonpractitioners. An analysis of variance demonstrated
that in three of the tests, the t'ai chi practitioners had
significantly better postural control than the sedentary
nonpractitioners (p less than .05). It was also found that
men performed significantly better than women in both the
practitioner and non-practitioner groups on the same three
tests (p less than .01)
Judge, J. O., Lindsey, C., Underwood, M., and Winsemius,
D.(1993). Balance improvements in older women: effects
of exercise training. Physical Therapy, 73(4), 254-262.
Abstract: BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE. Loss of lower-extremity
strength increases the risk of falls in older persons. The
purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that a
vigorous program of lower-extremity strengthening, walking,
and postural control exercises would improve the single-stance
balance of healthy older women and lower their risk of falls
and fall-associated injuries. SUBJECTS. From a total of
38 respondents, 21 women were randomly assigned to either
a treatment group (combined training, n = 12) or a control
group (flexibility training, n = 9). The subjects ranged
in age from 62 to 75 years (mean = 68, SD = 3.5). METHODS.
A randomized control trial compared the effects of two exercise
programs on static balance. The combined training group
exercised three times per week on knee extension and sitting
leg press machines, walked briskly for 20 minutes, and performed
postural control exercises, which included simple tai chi
movements. The flexibility training group performed postural
control exercises weekly. Measurements of balance were obtained
on a force platform in double and single stance, at baseline
and following 6 months of exercise training. RESULTS. Double-stance
measurements were unchanged after training. The mean displacement
of the center of pressure in single stance improved 17%
in the combined training group and did not change in the
flexibility training group. A repeated-measures analysis
of variance revealed that the difference in improvement
between the combined training and flexibility training groups
was not significant. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION. This is
the first intervention trial to demonstrate improvements
in single-stance postural sway in older women with exercise
training. Additional studies with more subjects will be
needed to determine whether a combined training program
of resistance training, walking, and postural exercises
can improve balance more than a program of postural control
exercises alone
Province, M. A., Hadley, E. C., Hornbrook, M. C., Lipsitz,
L. A., Miller, J. P., Mulrow, C. D., Ory, M. G., Sattin,
R. W., Tinetti, M. E., and Wolf, S. L. (1995). The effects
of exercise on falls in elderly patients. A preplanned
meta-analysis of the FICSIT Trials. Frailty and Injuries:
Cooperative Studies of Intervention Techniques [see comments].
JAMA 273(17), 1341-1347.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE--To determine if short-term
exercise reduces falls and fall-related injuries in the
elderly. DESIGN--A preplanned meta-analysis of the seven
Frailty and Injuries: Cooperative Studies of Intervention
Techniques (FICSIT)--independent, randomized, controlled
clinical trials that assessed intervention efficacy in reducing
falls and frailty in elderly patients. All included an exercise
component for 10 to 36 weeks. Fall and injury follow-up
was obtained for up to 2 to 4 years. SETTING--Two nursing
home and five community-dwelling (three health maintenance
organizations) sites. Six were group and center based; one
was conducted at home. PARTICIPANTS--Numbers of participants
ranged from 100 to 1323 per study. Subjects were mostly
ambulatory and cognitively intact, with minimum ages of
60 to 75 years, although some studies required additional
deficits, such as functionally dependent in two or more
activities of daily living, balance deficits or lower extremity
weakness, or high risk of falling. INTERVENTIONS--Exercise
components varied across studies in character, duration,
frequency, and intensity. Training was performed in one
area or more of endurance, flexibility, balance platform,
Tai Chi (dynamic balance), and resistance. Several treatment
arms included additional nonexercise components, such as
behavioral components, medication changes, education, functional
activity, or nutritional supplements. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Time
to each fall (fall-related injury) by self-report and/or
medical records. RESULTS--Using the Andersen-Gill extension
of the Cox model that allows multiple fall outcomes per
patient, the adjusted fall incidence ratio for treatment
arms including general exercise was 0.90 (95% confidence
limits [CL], 0.81, 0.99) and for those including balance
was 0.83 (95% CL, 0.70, 0.98). No exercise component was
significant for injurious falls, but power was low to detect
this outcome. CONCLUSIONS--Treatments including exercise
for elderly adults reduce the risk of falls
Wolfson, L., Whipple, R., Derby, C., Judge, J., King, M.,
Amerman, P., Schmidt, J., and Smyers, D. (1996). Balance
and strength training in older adults: intervention
gains and Tai Chi maintenance [see comments]. Journal of
the American Geriatrics Society, 44(5), 498-506.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect on
balance and strength of 3 months of intensive balance and/or
weight training followed by 6 months of low intensity Tai
Chi training for maintenance of gains. DESIGN: Randomized
control intervention. Four groups in 2 x 2 design: Control,
Balance, Strength, Balance + Strength, using blinded testers.
SETTING: Exercise and balance laboratory at University of
Connecticut Health Center. PARTICIPANTS: Subjects were 110
healthy community dwellers (mean age 80) who were free of
dementia, neurological disease, and serious cardiovascular
or musculoskeletal conditions. INTERVENTIONS: Short-term
training (3 months) occurred 3 times/week (45 minutes Balance
and Strength, 90 minutes Balance + Strength). Balance training
included equilibrium control exercises of firm and foam
surfaces and center-of-pressure biofeedback. Strengthening
consisted of lower extremity weight-lifting. All subjects
than received long-term group Tai Chi instruction (6 months,
1 hour, 1 time/week). MEASUREMENTS: Losses of balance during
Sensory Organization Testing (LOB), single stance time (SST),
voluntary limits of stability (FBOS), summed isokinetic
torque of eight lower extremity movements (ISOK), and usual
gait velocity (GVU). RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Balance training
meaningfully improved all balance measures by restoring
performance to a level analogous to an individual 3 to 10
years younger: LOB = -2.0 +/- 0.3 (adjusted paired differences,
P < .005 ANOVA); SST = 7.0 +/- 1.2 sec; and FBOS = 9.0
+/- 2.0% of foot length (P < .05). Strengthening increased
ISOK by 1.1 +/- 0.1 Nm kg-1 (P < .005). There was no
interaction between balance and strength training. Significant
gains persisted after 6 months of Tai Chi, although there
was some decrement
Schaller, K. J. (1996). Tai Chi: an exercise option
for older adults. Journal of Gerontological Nursing
22(10), 12-17.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine
the effects of Tai Chi on balance, flexibility, mood, health
status, and blood pressure in a sample of community-dwelling
elders. A quasi-experimental pretest-posttest design was
used in the study. Participants were recruited from a senior
center located in the suburbs of a large metropolitan area.
The experimental group consisted of 24 volunteers over the
age of 55 who performed 60 minutes of Tai Chi once a week
for 10 weeks and practiced at home. The control group consisted
of 22 volunteers who continued with their current level
of activity. Analysis of covariance revealed a significant
difference between the two groups on balance (F = 4.3, p
< .05). This study suggests that Tai Chi is a safe and
enjoyable form of exercise that might improve balance in
community-dwelling elders
Shih, J. (1997). Basic Beijing twenty-four forms of
T'ai Chi exercise and average velocity of sway. Perceptual
& Motor Skills, 84(1), 287-290.
Abstract: To examine the effect of 16 weeks of T'ai
Chi exercise on the average velocity of sway 11 subjects
were pre- and posttested by using the AMTI force platform.
Analysis indicated that T'ai Chi exercise was associated
with substantial changes in the sway velocities in anterior
and posterior directions for the group but was not assessed
against any control groups performance. That remains to
be evaluated
Wolf, S. L., Barnhart, H. X., Ellison, G. L., and Coogler,
C. E. (1997). The effect of Tai Chi Quan and computerized
balance training on postural stability in older subjects.
Atlanta FICSIT Group. Frailty and Injuries: Cooperative
Studies on Intervention Techniques. Physical Therapy, 77(4),
371-381.
Abstract: BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: This study explored
whether two exercise programs would affect the ability to
minimize postural sway of 72 relatively inactive, older
subjects who participated in the Atlanta FICSIT trial. SUBJECTS:
Subjects were randomly assigned to (1) a computerized balance
training group, (2) a tai chi group, or (3) an educational
group serving as a control for exercise. Each group consisted
of 24 members. METHODS: All subjects were evaluated under
four postural conditions before, immediately after, and
4 months following their respective interventions, each
of which was given over 15 weeks. RESULTS: Platform balance
measures revealed greater stability after training among
subjects in the balance training group but little change
in stability among subjects in the tai chi and educational
group. Subjects in the tai chi group were less afraid of
falling after training compared with subjects in other groups
with similar covariates. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION: Unlike
computerized balance training, tai chi does not improve
measures of postural stability. Because tai chi delayed
onset to first or multiple falls in older individuals, this
effect does not appear to be associated with measures of
enhanced postural stability. Tai chi may gain its success,
in part, from promoting confidence without reducing sway
rather than primarily facilitating a reduction in sway-based
measures
Wolf, S. L., Barnhart, H. X., Kutner, N. G., McNeely, E.,
Coogler, C., and Xu, T. (1996).Reducing frailty and falls
in older persons: an investigation of Tai Chi and computerized
balance training. Atlanta FICSIT Group. Frailty and
Injuries: Cooperative Studies of Intervention Techniques
[see comments]. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society
44(5), 489-497.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of two
exercise approaches, Tai Chi (TC) and computerized balance
training (BT), on specified primary outcomes (biomedical,
functional, and psychosocial indicators of frailty) and
secondary outcomes (occurrence of falls). DESIGN: The Atlanta
FICSIT (Frailty and Injuries: Cooperative Studies of Intervention
Techniques), a prospective, randomized, controlled clinical
trial with three arms (TC, BT, and education [ED]. Intervention
length was 15 weeks, with primary outcomes measured before
and after intervention and at 4-month follow-up. Falls were
monitored continuously throughout the study. SETTING: Persons
aged 70 and older living in the community. PARTICIPANTS:
A total of 200 participants, 162 women and 38 men; mean
age was 76.2. MEASUREMENTS: Biomedical (strength, flexibility,
cardiovascular endurance, body composition), functional
(IADL), and psychosocial well-being (CES-D scale, fear of
falling questionnaire, self-perception of present and future
health, mastery index, perceived quality of sleep, and intrusiveness)
variables. RESULTS: Grip strength declined in all groups,
and lower extremity range of motion showed limited but statistically
significant changes. Lowered blood pressure before and after
a 12-minute walk was seen following TC participation. Fear
of falling responses and intrusiveness responses were reduced
after the TC intervention compared with the ED group (P
= .046 and P = .058, respectively). After adjusting for
fall risk factors, TC was found to reduce the risk of multiple
falls by 47.5%. CONCLUSIONS: A moderate TC intervention
can impact favorably on defined biomedical and psychosocial
indices of frailty. This intervention can also have favorable
effects upon the occurrence of falls. Tai Chi warrants further
study as an exercise treatment to improve the health of
older people
Blood Pressure
Channer, K. S., Barrow, D., Barrow, R., Osborne, M., and
Ives, G. (1996).Changes in haemodynamic parameters following
Tai Chi Chuan and aerobic exercise in patients recovering
from acute myocardial infarction. Postgraduate Medical
Journal, 72(848), 349-351.
Abstract: In this study, 126 patients (90 males,
average age 56 years, range 39-80) were randomised to Wu
Chian-Ch'uan style Tai Chi (38), aerobic exercise (41) or
a non-exercise support group (47) following acute myocardial
infarction. Patients attended twice weekly for three weeks
then weekly for a further five weeks. Heart rate and blood
pressure were recorded before and after each session. Over
the 11 sessions of exercise there was a negative trend in
diastolic blood pressure only in the Tai Chi group (Rs =
0.79, p < 0.01). Significant trends in systolic blood
pressure occurred in both exercise groups (Rs = 0.64 and
0.63, both p < 0.05). Only four (8%) patients completed
the support group eight-week programme which was less than
the number completing Tai Chi (82%; p < 0.001) and aerobic
exercise groups (73%; p < 0.001)
Cardiovascular
Brown, D. D., Mucci, W. G., Hetzler, R. K., and Knowlton,
R. G. (1989). Cardiovascular and ventilatory responses
during formalized T'ai Chi Chuan exercise. Research
Quarterly for Exercise & Sport 60(3), 246-250.
Abstract: T'ai Chi Chuan (TCC) is a widely practiced
Chinese martial art said to physically develop balance and
coordination as well as enhance emotional and mental health.
TCC consists of a series of postures combined into a sequential
movement providing a smooth, continuous, low-intensity activity.
The purpose of this study was to examine the ventilatory
and cardiovascular responses to the Long Form of Yang's
style TCC. In addition, the subjects' TCC responses were
compared to their ventilatory and cardiovascular responses
during cycle ergometry at an oxygen consumption (VO2) equivalent
to the mean TCC VO2. Six experienced (M = 8.3 yrs) male
TCC practitioners served as subjects with data collected
during the Cloud H and movement of the TCC exercise. Significantly
(p less than .05) lower responses for ventilatory frequency
(Vf) (11.3 and 15.7 breaths.min-1), ventilatory equivalent
(VE/VO2) (23.47 and 27.41), and the ratio of dead space
ventilation to tidal volume (VD/VT) (20 and 27%) were found
in TCC in comparison to cycle ergometry. The percentage
of minute ventilation used for alveolar ventilation was
significantly higher during TCC (p less than .03) than cycle
ergometry, with mean values of 81.1% and 73.1%, respectively.
Cardiac output, stroke volume, and heart rate were not significantly
different between TCC exercise and cycle ergometry at the
same oxygen consumption. We concluded that, during TCC,
expert practitioners show significantly different ventilatory
responses leading to more efficient use of the ventilatory
volume than would be expected from comparable levels of
exertion on a cycle ergometer
Lai, J. S., Wong, M. K., Lan, C., Chong, C. K., and Lien,
I. N. (1993). Cardiorespiratory responses of Tai Chi
Chuan practitioners and sedentary subjects during cycle
ergometry. Journal of the Formosan Medical Association
92(10), 894-899.
Abstract: Tai Chi Chuan (TCC; shadow boxing) is a
traditional Chinese conditioning exercise. To evaluate its
beneficial effect on cardiorespiratory function, 21 male
and 20 female TCC practitioners, ranging in age from 50
to 64 years, voluntarily participated in this study. The
control group comprised 23 male and 26 female sedentary
subjects. Breath-by-breath measurement of the cardiorespiratory
function was obtained during the incremental exercise of
leg cycling. At the maximal exercise level, the oxygen uptake
(VO2), O2 pulse and work rate of the TCC group were significantly
higher than the respective values of the control group (p
< 0.01). At the ventilatory threshold, the TCC group
also showed a higher VO2, O2 pulse and work rate (p <
0.05). The results imply that TCC training may be beneficial
to the cardiorespiratory function of older individuals.
To estimate the exercise intensity of TCC, heart rate (HR)
was monitored in 15 men and 15 women while they performed
the classical Yang TCC. During the steady-state performance
of TCC, the mean HR was 130 +/- 14 bpm for men and 127 +/-
13 bpm for women. The mean HR during TCC exceeded 70% of
their HRmax. Our data substantiate that TCC is aerobic exercise
of moderate intensity, and it may be prescribed as a suitable
conditioning exercise for the elderly
Lai, J. S., Lan, C., Wong, M. K., and Teng, S. H. (1995).
Two-year trends in cardiorespiratory function among older
Tai Chi Chuan practitioners and sedentary subjects.
Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 43(11), 1222-1227.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the training effects
of Chinese shadow boxing, Tai Chi Chuan (TCC), on the maintenance
of cardiorespiratory function in older individuals. DESIGN:
Prospective study of a cohort of TCC practitioners and a
group of sedentary controls examined 2 years after initial
examination. SETTING: Research project at a hospital-based
exercise physiology laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: Eighty-four
community-dwelling older adults (mean age: 64 +/- 9 years)
with no significant cardiovascular, pulmonary, and musculoskeletal
disease completed this study. The TCC group, 23 male and
22 female subjects, had been practicing TCC regularly for
6.7 +/- 3.3 years. The control group included 21 male and
18 female sedentary subjects with age and body size matched
to the TCC group. INTERVENTION: During the period of the
study, the TCC practitioners practiced TCC 5.0 +/- 1.1 times
per week. Each session included 20 minutes of warm up, 24
minutes of TCC training, and 10 minutes of cool down. The
baseline cardiorespiratory function was recorded in the
initial exercise test. The same measurements were repeated
2 years later to determine the rate of decline of cardiorespiratory
function. Furthermore, heart rates (HR) were monitored in
18 men and 16 women during the performance of TCC to determine
the exercise intensity of TCC. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: The
study measured 2-year trends of cardiorespiratory function
in both groups. RESULTS: In the TCC group, the males showed
a 2.8% decrease in maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) from 31.6
+/- 7.6 mL x kg-1 x min-1 to 30.7 +/- 7.1 mL x kg-1 x min-1;
the females showed a 2.9% decrease in VO2 max from 20.7
+/- 2.3 mL x kg-1 x min-1 to 20.1 +/- 2.5 mL x kg-1 x min-1.
In contrast, the male control group showed a 6.6% decrease
in VO2max from 24.4 +/- 4.4 mL x kg-1 x min-1 to 22.8 +/-
4.4 mL x kg-1 x min-1; the females showed a 7.4% decrease
in VO2max from 16.2 +/- 2.3 mL x kg-1 x min-1 to 15.0 +/-
2.7 mL x kg-1 x min-1. At the ventilatory threshold (VeT),
the sedentary group also showed a significant decrease in
VO2. During the steady-state performance of TCC, subjects'
mean HR was approximately the HR at the VeT (53-57% of HRmax
reserve). CONCLUSION: The data substantiate that practicing
Tai Chi Chuan regularly may delay the decline of cardiorespiratory
function in older individuals. In addition, TCC may be prescribed
as a suitable aerobic exercise for older adults
Lan, C., Lai, J. S., Wong, M. K., and Yu, M. L. (1996).
Cardiorespiratory function, flexibility, and body composition
among geriatric Tai Chi Chuan practitioners. Archives
of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 77(6), 612-616.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the health-related
fitness of geriatric Tai Chi Chuan (TCC) practitioners.
DESIGN: Case-control study of a TCC group and a group of
sedentary controls. SETTING: Research project at a hospital-based
exercise physiology laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: Seventy-six
community-dwelling senior persons (mean age 69.3 +/- 3.9
yr), a TCC group that included 22 men and 19 women and a
control group of sedentary subjects that included 18 men
and 17 women with matched age and body size. INTERVENTION:
The TCC group had practiced TCC regularly for 11.8 +/- 5.6
years, with an exercise frequency of 4.3 +/- 1.3 times per
week. Each session included 20 minutes of warm-up, 24 minutes
of TCC training, and 10 minutes of cool-down. Exercise intensity
was estimated to exceed 70% of maximal heart rate (HRmax).
MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Breath-by-breath measurement of cardiorespiratory
function was obtained during the incremental exercise of
leg cycling. Flexibility of thoracic/lumbar spine was measured
by an electronic inclinometer. Percentages of body fat was
calculated from biceps and subcapsular skinfolds. RESULTS:
In the peak exercise, men in the TCC group showed 19% higher
peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) in comparison with their sedentary
counterparts (26.9 +/- 4.7 mL/kg/min vs 21.8 +/- 3.1 mL/kg/min).
Women in the TCC group also showed 18% higher VO2peak than
in the sedentary group (20.1 +/- 2.9 mL/kg/ min vs 16.5
+/- 2.0 mL/kg/min). The TCC group also showed higher oxygen
uptake at the ventilatory threshold. In addition, the TCC
practitioners were characterized by greater flexibility
and lower percentage of body fat in comparison with their
sedentary counterparts. CONCLUSION: It is concluded that
TCC training has benefits for health-related fitness, and
it may be prescribed as a suitable conditioning exercise
for the elderly
Cortisol
Jin, P. (1989). Changes in heart rate, noradrenaline,
cortisol and mood during Tai Chi. Journal of Psychosomatic
Research, 33(2), 197-206.
Abstract: Changes in psychological and physiological
functioning following participation in Tai Chi were assessed
for 33 beginners and 33 practitioners. The variables in
the three-way factorial design were experience (beginners
vs practitioners), time (morning vs afternoon vs evening),
and phase (before Tai Chi vs during Tai Chi vs after Tai
Chi). Phase was a repeated measures variable. Relative to
measures taken beforehand, practice of Tai Chi raised heart
rate, increased noradrenaline excretion in urine, and decreased
salivary cortisol concentration. Relative to baseline levels,
subjects reported less tension, depression, anger, fatigue,
confusion and state-anxiety, they felt more vigorous, and
in general they had less total mood disturbance. The data
suggest that Tai Chi results in gains that are comparable
to those found with moderate exercise. There is need for
research concerned with whether participation in Tai Chi
has effects over and above those associated with physical
exercise
Elderly
Lan, C., Lai, J.S., Chen, S.Y. & Wong, M.K. (1998).
12-month Tai Chi training in the elderly: its effect
on health fitness. Med Science Sports Exercize, 30,
345-351.
Abstract: The objective of this study was to evaluate
the effect of Tai Chi Chuan (TCC) on healh fitness in older
individuals. Thirty-eiht community-dwelling persons aged
58-70 years completed this study. The TCC group included
9 men and 11 women; the control group included 9 mend and
9 women. The TCC group practiced TCC for 11.2 +/-1.4 monthsk
with the atendance of 4.6 +/-1.3 times x wk(-1_. Each session
included 20 minutes of warm-up, 24 minutes of TCC practice,
and 10 minutes of cooldown. The exercise intensity was 52-63%
of the heart rate range. Cardiorespiratory function, strength,
flexibility, and percent of body fat were evaluated before
and at the end of this study. The maile TCC grou showed
16.1% increase in flexibility (P< 0.05), 18.1% increase
in muscle strength of knee extensor (P<0.01), 8.8 degrees
increase in flexibility (P< 0.05), and 15.0% increase
of knee flexor (P<0.05). The control group showed no
significant change in these variables. The results indicate
that a 12-month Tai Chi Chuan program is effective for improveing
health fitness of the elderly.
Wolf, S. L., Kutner, N. G., Green, R. C., and McNeely,
E. (1993). The Atlanta FICSIT study: two exercise interventions
to reduce frailty in elders. Journal of the American
Geriatrics Society, 41(3), 329-332.
Abstract: This study examines the effect of two
different exercise approaches on balance and frailty measures
among more than 200 community-dwelling individuals greater
than 70 years of age. Exercises are provided for 15 weekly
sessions on an individual basis for participants randomly
assigned to a Balance Training group. Training consists
of center-of-mass feedback displayed on a motor under static
conditions, or, in later sessions, as the floor surface
is moved, with eyes open or closed. This high technology
interface provides instantaneous information about displacement
of body weight in space so that balance can be enhanced.
An alternative procedure is comparatively simple and requires
little expense or space. Tai Chi Quan was originally developed
as a martial arts form but has been used for centuries in
China as an exercise among elderly citizens. Participants
randomly assigned to this intervention meet twice weekly
for 15 weeks to learn a condensation of 108 Tai Chi forms
into 10 that emphasize movement components often restricted
or absent with aging. A third group serves as a control
for exercise interventions by meeting weekly for 15 sessions
to discuss topics of interest such as memory loss, drug
management, and nutrition. All subjects are screened prior
to assignment, and a host of physical, behavioral, and functional
measures are assessed before and after the intervention
as well as 4 months later. Measurements unique to the Atlanta
site include: balance with eyes closed, programmed force-distribution
changes when stance is perturbed, cardiovascular assessments,
WAIS, Affects Balance Scale, and a survey of home environment
Exercise
Zhuo, D., Shephard, R. J., Plyley, M. J., and Davis, G.
M. (1984). Cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses
during Tai Chi Chuan exercise. Canadian Journal of Applied
Sport Sciences - Journal Canadien des Sciences Appliquees
au Sport, 9(1), 7-10.
Abstract: Tai Chi Chuan is a form of traditional
Chinese exercise which has been widely practised in China
for preventive and therapeutic purposes. The present study
was designed to determine the physiological demands of this
exercise modality. Eleven healthy males, aged 28.4 years,
were studied for oxygen cost and related metabolic variables,
heart rate and blood pressure during the performance of
the Long-Form Tai Chi Chuan of Yang's style. Data was collected
by an automated respiratory gas analyzer (Jeger Ergooxyscreen)
and ECG telemetry during a 17-25 minute performance session
(X = 22 minutes). The average energy cost for the Long-Form
Tai Chi Chuan was 4.1 Mets, corresponding to a mean VO2
value of 1.03 l X min-1 or 14.5 ml X kg-1 X min-1. The mean
peak heart rate during the exercises was 134 beats per minute.
These values suggest that the Long-Form Tai Chi Chuan may
be classed as moderate exercise, and its intensity does
not exceed 50% of the individual's maximum oxygen intake
Jin, P. (1992). Efficacy of Tai Chi, brisk walking,
meditation, and reading in reducing mental and emotional
stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Research ,36(4), 361-370.
Abstract: Tai Chi, a moving meditation, is examined
for its efficacy in post-stressor recovery. Forty-eight
male and 48 female Tai Chi practitioners were randomly assigned
to four treatment groups: Tai Chi, brisk walking, mediation
and neutral reading. Mental arithmetic and other difficult
tests were chosen as mental challenges, and a stressful
film was used to produce emotional disturbance. Tai Chi
and the other treatments were applied after these stressors.
After all treatments, the salivary cortisol level dropped
significantly, and the mood states were also improved. In
general the stress-reduction effect of Tai Chi characterized
moderate physical exercise. Heart rate, blood pressure,
and urinary catecholamine changes for Tai Chi were found
to be similar to those for walking at a speed of 6 km/hr.
Although Tai Chi appeared to be superior to neutral reading
in the reduction of state anxiety and the enhancement of
vigour, this effect could be partially accounted for by
the subjects' high expectations about gains from Tai Chi.
Approaches controlling for expectancy level are recommended
for further assessment
Brown, D. R., Wang, Y., Ward, A., Ebbeling, C. B., Fortlage,
L., Puleo, E., Benson, H., and Rippe, J. M. (1995).Chronic
psychological effects of exercise and exercise plus cognitive
strategies. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise,
27(5), 765-775.
Abstract: Psychological changes associated with
16-wk moderate and low intensity exercise training programs,
two of which possessed a cognitive component, were evaluated.
Subjects were healthy, sedentary adults, 69 women (mean
age = 54.8 +/- 8.3 yr) and 66 men (mean age = 50.6 +/- 8.0
yr). Participants were randomly assigned to a control group
(C), moderate intensity walking group (MW), low intensity
walking group (LW), low intensity walking plus relaxation
response group (LWR), or mindful exercise (ME) group-a Tai
Chi type program. Women in the ME group experienced reductions
in mood disturbance (tension, P < 0.01; depression, P
< 0.05; anger, P < 0.008; confusion, P < 0.02;
and total mood disturbance, P < 0.006) and an improvement
in general mood (P < 0.04). Women in the MW group noted
greater satisfaction with physical attributes (body cathexis,
P < 0.03), and men in MW reported increased positive
affect (P < 0.006). No other differences were observed
between groups on measures of mood, self-esteem, personality,
or life satisfaction. Equivocal support is provided for
the hypothesis that exercise plus cognitive strategy training
programs are more effective than exercise programs lacking
a structured cognitive component in promoting psychological
benefits
Strength
Jacobson, B. H., Chen, H. C., Cashel, C., and Guerrero,
L.(1997). The effect of T'ai Chi Chuan training on balance,
kinesthetic sense, and strength. Perceptual & Motor
Skills, 84(1), 27-33.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to assess
the effect of T' ai Chi Chuan training on lateral stability,
kinesthetic sense, and strength of voluntary knee extension.
Subjects consisted of 24 naive volunteers (12 men and 12
women) between the ages of 20 and 45 years. Pre- and 12-week
posttests included lateral body stability, kinesthetic sense
in the glenohumeral joint for 30 degrees, 45 degrees, and
60 degrees, and strength of knee extension. After pretest
data collection, 12 subjects performed T'ai Chi Chuan three
times per week for 12 weeks, learning 108 forms of T'ai
Chi Chuan. A 2 x 2 analysis of variance was used to estimate
significance of group differences on all of the dependent
variables. Significant group differences were found in lateral
body stability, kinesthetic sense at 60 degrees, and strength
of the dominant knee extensor. No significant differences
between the T'ai Chi and the control group were found for
kinesthetic sense at 30 degrees and 45 degrees rotation
of the glenohumeral joint. Film analysis indicated that
the two lesser angles were not as common in the T'ai Chi
training as the greater angle (60 degrees) and thus may
be less practiced. It appears that T'ai Chi Chuan presents
a low-stress method to enhance stability, selected kinesthetic
sense, and strength of knee extension
Technique
Adler, S. S. (1983). Seeking stillness in motion: An
introduction to Tai Chi for seniors. Activities, Adaptation
and Aging, 3(4), 1-14.
Abstract: Describes Tai Chi Chuan, a traditional
Chinese exercise, in terms of its potential benefits for
older people. Two major philosophical principles underlying
Tai Chi exercises are discussed: shen, or spiritual awareness,
and seeking stillness in motion. The adaptation of traditional
Tai Chi forms for older people is described with detailed
instructions on the use of prebirth breathing.
Hendlin, S. J. (1978). Tai Chi Chuan and Gestalt therapy.
Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy 10(1), 25-31.
Abstract: Discusses Tai Chi, a Chinese system of
integrated exercises, as an effective adjunct to Gestalt
therapy. Similarities in the philosophies of Gestalt therapy
and Tai Chi include (a) focusing on the here and now, (b)
identification of polar opposites, (c) acceptance of rather
than analysis of experience, (d) emphasis on sensation rather
than intellect as a way of knowing the world, and (e) development
of self-actualization, or beign identity, above and beyond
ego and existential identity. The use of Tai Chi in clinical
and growth center settings is described.
Koh, T. C. (1981).Tai Chi Chuan. American Journal
of Chinese Medicine, 9(1), 15-22.
Abstract: Tai Chi Chuan, a mind-body relaxation
exercise, was devised by Chang San Feng for meditation and
self-defense in the thirteenth century A.D. The 108 forms
are performed in a slow relaxed manner, taking 30 minutes
altogether. Practitioners of Tai Chi claim that it promotes
health and cures certain illnesses but this has not been
substantiated and therefore further research into its health
benefits is warranted
